Each layer has different structures and functions. The digestive system is responsible for the ingestion and digestion of dietary substances, the absorption of nutrients, and the elimination of waste products. What are the layers of mucosa? Gastric glands. describe the four layers of the gi tract. While the colon has two layers like the small intestine, its longitudinal layer is segregated into three narrow parallel bands, the tenia coli, which make it look like a series of pouches rather than a simple tube. To appreciate just how demanding the digestive process is on the cardiovascular system, consider that while you are resting and digesting, about one-fourth of the blood pumped with each heartbeat enters arteries serving the intestines. The blood vessels serving the digestive system have two functions. Hemorrhagic peritonitis occurs after a ruptured tubal pregnancy or traumatic injury to the liver or spleen fills the peritoneal cavity with blood. The Villi, from the plicae circulares, increase surface area for absorption. The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo Digestive mucosa is made up of three sublayers: (1) a lining epithelium, (2) a lamina propria, and (3) a musclularis mucosae. In the small intestine, the epithelium (particularly the ileum) is specialized for absorption, with villi and microvilli increasing surface area. The epithelium of the mucosa is particularly specialized, depending on the portion of the digestive system. HV Carter was born in Yorkshire in 1831. Consider for example, the interrelationship between the digestive and cardiovascular systems. The muscularis mucosae, the outer layer of the mucosa, is a thin layer of smooth muscle responsible for generating local movements. When your great grandparents and even your parents were young, the mortality from peritonitis was high. Hemorrhagic peritonitis occurs after a ruptured tubal pregnancy or traumatic injury to the liver or spleen fills the peritoneal cavity with blood. Our mission is to improve educational access and learning for everyone. The third layer with high autonomy is defined as semiautonomous navigation, transferring the decision priority to the system. These tissues serve to hold the alimentary canal in place near the ventral surface of the vertebral column. The myenteric plexus (plexus of Auerbach) lies in the muscularis layer of the alimentary canal and is responsible for motility, especially the rhythm and force of the contractions of the muscularis. The serosa is the portion of the alimentary canal superficial to the muscularis. The enteric nervous system provides intrinsic innervation, and the autonomic nervous system provides extrinsic innervation. Which is more efficient in propelling intestinal contents along the digestive tract: peristalsis or segmentation? Without these nerves, not only would your food be without taste, but you would also be unable to feel either the food or the structures of your mouth, and you would be unable to avoid biting yourself as you chew, an action enabled by the motor branches of cranial nerves. Organs of the Alimentary Canal The Mouth and Oral cavity. Your IP address is listed in our blacklist and blocked from completing this request. Left, right, caudate, and quadrate lobes. The mesocolon is an extension of the visceral peritoneum that attaches the large intestine to the rear of the abdominal wall. It is also important for the telecommunication industry to obtain a high profit. Inflammation of the peritoneum is called peritonitis. Only then does the blood drained from the alimentary canal viscera circulate back to the heart. Accessory digestive organs, despite their name, are critical to the function of the digestive system. Aggressive surgery, improvements in anesthesia safety, the advance of critical care expertise, and antibiotics have greatly improved the mortality rate from this condition. As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases. Going from the inside out, these are: mucosa; submucosa; muscularis externa; adventitia or serosa; Figure 2: Schematic drawing of the digestive tract layers Mucosa. Consider for example, the interrelationship between the digestive and cardiovascular systems. Most of the operating systems installed on personal computers come with several client processes, but normally no server processes. Epithelial cells have a very brief lifespan, averaging from only a couple of days (in the mouth) to about a week (in the gut). The epithelial membrane consists of a layer of epithelial tissue and has underlying connective tissue. The breakdown of lipid droplets by bile salts. Part B: First, describe the four major layers of the GI tract that are found from esophagus to anus. Describe the separation of the thorax and abdomen by the diaphragm 4. Both the mouth and anus are open to the external environment; thus, food and wastes within the alimentary canal are technically considered to be outside the body. Lipids are absorbed via lacteals, tiny structures of the lymphatic system. Food enters the mouth, is digested, and used for energy and nutrients; what cannot be used is expelled from the body. The mucosa is the innermost layer, and functions in absorption and secretion. The submucosal plexus (plexus of Meissner) lies in the submucosal layer and is responsible for regulating digestive secretions and reacting to the presence of food (see Figure 23.3). The blood vessels serving the digestive system have two functions. e. SMALL INTESTINE - It is the longest part of the alimentary canal and comprises three parts- Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum. The thin filaments are anchored to dense bodies. secretory function in stomach. It is rounded and hollow, and located near the diaphragm in the left part of your abdomen. 3. When you consider that the alimentary canal is exposed to foodborne bacteria and other foreign matter, it is not hard to appreciate why the immune system has evolved a means of defending against the pathogens encountered within it. Name the four layers of the digestive tract from superficial to deep. Submucosa - 3. What roles do exons have? Mucosa - Circular muscle layer and longitudinal muscle layer are the two sublayers. . Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon, Next: 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Blood supplies digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients; absorption of nutrients, Endocrine hormones help regulate secretion in digestive glands and accessory organs, Skin helps protect digestive organs and synthesizes vitamin D for calcium absorption, Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and other lymphatic tissue defend against entry of pathogens; lacteals absorb lipids; and lymphatic vessels transport lipids to bloodstream, Skeletal muscles support and protect abdominal organs, Sensory and motor neurons help regulate secretions and muscle contractions in the digestive tract, Respiratory organs provide oxygen and remove carbon dioxide, Bones help protect and support digestive organs, Kidneys convert vitamin D into its active form, allowing calcium absorption in the small intestine, Apron-like structure that lies superficial to the small intestine and transverse colon; a site of fat deposition in people who are overweight, Anchors the liver to the anterior abdominal wall and inferior border of the diaphragm, Suspends the stomach from the inferior border of the liver; provides a pathway for structures connecting to the liver, Vertical band of tissue anterior to the lumbar vertebrae and anchoring all of the small intestine except the initial portion (the duodenum), Attaches two portions of the large intestine (the transverse and sigmoid colon) to the posterior abdominal wall, Describe the organs of the alimentary canal from proximal to distal, and briefly state their function, Identify the accessory digestive organs and briefly state their function, Describe the four fundamental tissue layers of the alimentary canal and the function of each layer, Contrast the contributions of the enteric and autonomic nervous systems to digestive system functioning, Explain how the peritoneum anchors the digestive organs. As soon as food enters the mouth, it is detected by receptors that send impulses along the sensory neurons of cranial nerves. Identify the structural characteristic of smooth muscle fibers. By clicking on this link you can watch a short video of what happens to the food you eat, as it passes from your mouth to your intestine. It has three parts- Caecum, Colon, and Rectum g. A: The alimentary canal is defined as the narrow muscular tube by which food enters and solid wastes Q: From the esophagus to the anal canal, the walls of the digestive tract are made of the same four A: The digestive tract consists of mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. It is composed of three layers: The submucosa lies outside the mucosa. Name the layers of the small intestine from superficial to deep. The lamina propria of the mucosa contains lymphoid tissue that makes up the MALT and responds to pathogens encountered in the alimentary canal. Together, these are called accessory organs because they sprout from the lining cells of the developing gut (mucosa) and augment its function; indeed, you could not live without their vital contributions, and many significant diseases result from their malfunction. Explain how the displacement current maintains the continuity of current in a circuit containing a capacitor. As is the case with all body systems, the digestive system does not work in isolation; it functions cooperatively with the other systems of the body. 1999-2023, Rice University. Muscularis: composed of two layers of muscle tissue. The myenteric plexus (plexus of Auerbach) lies in the muscularis layer of the alimentary canal and is responsible for motility, especially the rhythm and force of the contractions of the muscularis. The membrane consists of epithelium, which is in direct contact with ingested food, and the lamina propria, a layer of connective tissue analogous to the dermis. It contains blood vessels, nerve endings, lymph nodules, and lymphatic vessels. The mesentery is an extension of the visceral peritoneum that attaches the small intestine to the rear abdominal wall. These lymphocyte clusters are particularly substantial in the distal ileum where they are known as Peyers patches. For example, when an ulcer perforates the stomach wall, gastric juices spill into the peritoneal cavity. Describe the four layers of the GI tract 1. 2. These tissues serve to hold the alimentary canal in place near the ventral surface of the vertebral column. then you must include on every digital page view the following attribution: Use the information below to generate a citation. 2. In general, sympathetic activation (the fight-or-flight response) restricts the activity of enteric neurons, thereby decreasing GI secretion and motility. These intestinal veins, constituting the hepatic portal system, are unique; they do not return blood directly to the heart. Mucosa: epithelium - secretion and absorption; lamina propria - nutrient absorption; muscularis muscosae - increases surface area (for digestion & absorption) 2. submucosa: receive absorbed food molecules 3. Name the major functions of the large intestine. Describe the anatomy of the intestinal mucosa. It is made of: epithelium; lamina propria Notice that the epithelium is in direct contact with the lumen, the space inside the alimentary canal. 120K views 10 years ago This video describes the functions of the 4 layers of the Alimentary canal. David N. Shier, Jackie L. Butler, Ricki Lewis, Hole's Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, David Shier, Jackie Butler, John Hole, Ricki Lewis. The wall of the GI tract from the esophagus to the anal canal has four-layer from deep to superficial, are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and serosa/adventitia. The digestive tract, from the esophagus to the anus, is characterized by a wall with four layers, or tunics. Along the way, note how the food changes consistency and form. Describe the four layers of the gastrointestinal tract walls, including locations. The stomach is equipped for its churning function by the addition of a third layer, the oblique muscle. Along the way, note how the food changes consistency and form. The lamina propria also contains the mucosaassociated lymphoid tissue (MALT), nodules of lymphatic tissue bearing lymphocytes and macrophages that protect the GI tract wall from bacteria and other pathogens that may be mixed with food. Large intestine. Table 23.1 gives a quick glimpse at how these other systems contribute to the functioning of the digestive system. What are some possible roles introns might have? Name the four major regions of the stomach in order from its connection with the esophagus to the small intestine. EpitheliumIn the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and anal canal, the epithelium is primarily a non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. Aggressive surgery, improvements in anesthesia safety, the advance of critical care expertise, and antibiotics have greatly improved the mortality rate from this condition. At the same time, the digestive system provides nutrients to the heart muscle and vascular tissue to support their functioning. The four layers of the alimentary or digestive tract are listed as: Serosa: It is formed of the mesothelium and is found at the exterior part of the canal. The hard palate, a bony structure, forms the roof of the mouth. From the inside out they are called the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. In this study, various types of learning strategies are investigated to address this challenge and . A broad layer of dense connective tissue, it connects the overlying mucosa to the underlying muscularis. Answer and Explanation: 1. (5 Points) Serosa - The outer layer allows fluids to escape, keeping the outer surface wet and allowing organs to slide past one another during digestion and movement. Helping them along the way are the pancreas, gall bladder and liver. Starting from the lumen and moving outwards, these layers are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa, which is continuous with the mesentery (see Figure 23.3). Table 23.1 gives a quick glimpse at how these other systems contribute to the functioning of the digestive system. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is composed of four layers of tissue, known as tunics. are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University. The mucosa contains specialized goblet cells that secrete sticky mucus throughout the GI tract. The hollow organs that make up the gastrointestinal tract include the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, cecum, colon (large intestine), rectum and anal canal. Support/stabilize the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity and route for blood. It is made up of three layers: the epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae. Intrinsic innervation of much of the alimentary canal is provided by the enteric nervous system, which runs from the esophagus to the anus, and contains approximately 100 million motor, sensory, and interneurons (unique to this system compared to all other parts of the peripheral nervous system). The interrelationship of the digestive and endocrine systems is also critical. Throughout its length, the alimentary tract is composed of the same four tissue layers; the details of their structural arrangements vary to fit their specific functions. The blood vessels second function is to supply the organs of the alimentary canal with the nutrients and oxygen needed to drive their cellular processes. Support/stabilize the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity and route for blood. Although the small intestine is the workhorse of the system, where the majority of digestion occurs, and where most of the released nutrients are absorbed into the blood or lymph, each of the digestive system organs makes a vital contribution to this process (Figure 23.2). This book uses the Muscularis externa. Contains the submucosal enteric neural plexus that controls GI secretions and localized blood flow. In turn, the digestive system provides the nutrients to fuel endocrine function. June 14, 2022; park city pickleball tournament . The Chemical Level of Organization, Chapter 3. Then, draw AND describe the specific structural and functional differences in the inner lining of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine in the appropriate boxes below. If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a print format, Describe the formation and structures of the 'generalised' body wall 2. Chemical peritonitis can develop any time the wall of the alimentary canal is breached, allowing the contents of the lumen entry into the peritoneal cavity. from your Reading List will also remove any We recommend using a An Introduction to the Human Body, Chapter 2. The structure of these layers varies, in different regions of the digestive system, depending on their function. The muscularis mucosae is a thin layer of smooth muscle and its function is still under debate. On the mucosa layer, small finger-like projections called villi and microvilli help to increase surface area for nutrient absorption. This season, you are right on trend if you explore the depths and layers of this often overlooked color. Instead of serosa, the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus have a dense sheath of collagen fibers called the adventitia. This process of rapid renewal helps preserve the health of the alimentary canal, despite the wear and tear resulting from continued contact with foodstuffs. By clicking on this link, you can watch a short video of what happens to the food you eat as it passes from your mouth to your intestine. Submucosa. The digestive system includes the organs of the alimentary canal and accessory structures. In addition, the mucosa has a thin, smooth muscle layer, called the muscularis mucosae (not to be confused with the muscularis layer, described below). The visceral peritoneum includes multiple large folds that envelope various abdominal organs, holding them to the dorsal surface of the body wall. Why? Each layer has different tissues and functions. The mucosa is the innermost layer. In the most proximal and distal regions of the alimentary canal, including the mouth, pharynx, anterior part of the esophagus, and external anal sphincter, the muscularis is made up of skeletal muscle, which gives you voluntary control over swallowing and defecation. General structure of the gut wall: This cross section shows the mucosa in relation to the interior space, or lumen. Only then does the blood drained from the alimentary canal viscera circulate back to the heart. The GI tract contains four layers: the innermost layer is the mucosa, underneath this is the submucosa, followed by the muscularis propria and finally, the outermost layer - the adventitia. Interspersed among its epithelial cells are goblet cells, which secrete mucus and fluid into the lumen, and enteroendocrine cells, which secrete hormones into the interstitial spaces between cells. Name the nutrient that may be related to each of the following: a. iron-deficiency anemia b. osteoporosis c. dehydration d. high blood pressure. Small intestine. lamina propria. Intrinsic innervation of much of the alimentary canal is provided by the enteric nervous system, which runs from the esophagus to the anus, and contains approximately 100 million motor, sensory, and interneurons (unique to this system compared to all other parts of the peripheral nervous system). A sheet of mesentery that is remnant of the ventral mesentery, between the liver and the anterior wall of the peritoneal cavity. The idea of this style focuses on last years' sudden surge in popularity for plants as dcor. Blood vessels and lymphatic vessels present in this layer provide nutrients to the epithelial layer, distribute hormones produced in the epithelium, and absorb end products of digestion from the lumen. 1-The wall of the digestive tract has four layers- 1-Mucosa 2-Sub mucosa 3-Mucosal layer 4-Serosal layer or Serosa Each of these layers have different tissues and functions,the mucosa is the inner most layer and its main function is in anso View the full answer In the most proximal and distal regions of the alimentary canal, including the mouth, pharynx, anterior part of the esophagus, and external anal sphincter, the muscularis is made up of skeletal muscle, which gives you voluntary control over swallowing and defecation. Arteries supply the digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients, and veins drain the digestive tract. The interrelationship of the digestive and endocrine systems is also critical. The digestive organs within the abdominal cavity are held in place by the peritoneum, a broad serous membranous sac made up of squamous epithelial tissue surrounded by connective tissue. The abdominal cavity contains the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, spleen, and pancreas. The stomach can perform these roles due to the layers of the stomach wall. Accessory digestive organs comprise the second group and are critical for orchestrating the breakdown of food and the assimilation of its nutrients into the body. are licensed under a, Structural Organization of the Human Body, Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response, Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems, Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back, Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, and Thorax, Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, Basic Structure and Function of the Nervous System, Circulation and the Central Nervous System, Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation, Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange, Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, Digestive System Processes and Regulation, Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, Human Development and the Continuity of Life, Anatomy and Physiology of the Testicular Reproductive System, Anatomy and Physiology of the Ovarian Reproductive System, Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems, Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages. The first group is the organs that make up the alimentary canal. The muscularis (muscularis externa) is a layer of muscle. Also present are goblet cells and endocrine cells. The pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, rectum, and internal reproductive organs. Choose a modest trial pack with just two or four candies if you want to try these gummies out quickly. The The wall of the alimentary canal has four basic tissue layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. Except where otherwise noted, textbooks on this site The mucosa is referred to as a mucous membrane, because mucus production is a characteristic feature of gut epithelium. Only through the process of absorption do the nutrients in food enter into and nourish the bodys inner space.. The celiac trunk services the liver, stomach, and duodenum, whereas the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries supply blood to the remaining small and large intestines. The easiest way to understand the digestive system is to divide its organs into two main categories. Peritonitis is life threatening and often results in emergency surgery to correct the underlying problem and intensive antibiotic therapy. The stomach is a key part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, sitting between the esophagus and duodenum. These enteric neurons are grouped into two plexuses. In turn, the digestive system provides the nutrients to fuel endocrine function. It is the absorptive and secretory layer of the GI tract. Below this point, the alimentary canal is supplied with blood by arteries branching from the abdominal aorta. The mucosa is a mucous membrane that lines the inside of the digestive tract from mouth to anus. However, if you are a seasoned user . Imagine a sheet of material just one layer of atoms thickless than a millionth . If you are the site owner (or you manage this site), please whitelist your IP or if you think this block is an error please open a support ticket and make sure to include the block details (displayed in the box below), so we can assist you in troubleshooting the issue. 1. The Cardiovascular System: Blood, Chapter 19. This process of rapid renewal helps preserve the health of the alimentary canal, despite the wear and tear resulting from continued contact with foodstuffs. The mucosa consists of the epitheliumitself and also the supporting loose connective tissue, called lamina propria, immediately beneath the epithelium. The organs of the alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. These enteric neurons are grouped into two plexuses. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages.
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